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Cleaners and HR staff at fire stations could be deployed to respond to calls if firefighters go on Five outstanding From couch potatoes to TV stars! Watch as driver tells police 'I hope I killed someone' as he's arrested for killing year-old woman in Natural foods were consumed and hunted.
Deer, buffalo, fish, and various birds were the game of choice. Corn, beans, squash, berries, nuts, and melons were the fruits and vegetables that were consumed. Berries were also often used as a natural dye for fabrics. While the late 's into the 's and beyond began to bring struggle to the Native American Indians, they fought a tough battle in pursuit of protecting their land. Many different laws were passed by various US presidents stating that the Indians should be removed.
Spanish colonists and missionaries had enslaved many of the Pueblo Indians, for example, working them to death on vast Spanish ranches known as encomiendas. The Great Basin culture area, an expansive bowl formed by the Rocky Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevadas to the west, the Columbia Plateau to the north, and the Colorado Plateau to the south, was a barren wasteland of deserts, salt flats and brackish lakes.
Its people, most of whom spoke Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan dialects the Bannock, Paiute and Ute, for example , foraged for roots, seeds and nuts and hunted snakes, lizards and small mammals. Because they were always on the move, they lived in compact, easy-to-build wikiups made of willow poles or saplings, leaves and brush. Their settlements and social groups were impermanent, and communal leadership what little there was was informal. After European contact, some Great Basin groups got horses and formed equestrian hunting and raiding bands that were similar to the ones we associate with the Great Plains natives.
Before European contact, the temperate California area had more people than any other North American landscape at the time, approximately , people in the midth century. It's estimated that different tribes and groups spoke more than dialects. Despite this great diversity, many native Californians lived very similar lives.
They did not practice much agriculture. Instead, they organized themselves into small, family-based bands of hunter-gatherers known as tribelets. Inter-tribelet relationships, based on well-established systems of trade and common rights, were generally peaceful.
Spanish explorers infiltrated the California region in the middle of the 16th century. The Northwest Coast culture area, along the Pacific coast from British Columbia to the top of Northern California, has a mild climate and an abundance of natural resources.
As a result, unlike many other hunter-gatherers who struggled to eke out a living and were forced to follow animal herds from place to place, the Indians of the Pacific Northwest were secure enough to build permanent villages that housed hundreds of people apiece.
Those villages operated according to a rigidly stratified social structure, more sophisticated than any outside of Mexico and Central America. Goods like these played an important role in the potlatch, an elaborate gift-giving ceremony designed to affirm these class divisions.
Most of its people lived in small, peaceful villages along stream and riverbanks and survived by fishing for salmon and trout, hunting and gathering wild berries, roots and nuts. In the 18th century, other native groups brought horses to the Plateau. In , the explorers Lewis and Clark passed through the area, followed by increasing numbers of white settlers.
By the end of the 19th century, most of the remaining members of Plateau tribes had been cleared from their lands and resettled in government reservations. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Subscribe for fascinating stories connecting the past to the present. These tribes have already settled in the American lands even prior to the arrival of the European explorers. They reached the land of America through Beringia Bridge.
From then on, Native American Indians have spread all over America, making them comprise approximately 1. Their population growth has been very evident from the year up to The major driver of this growth is through their interaction with other races, especially Alaska Natives. They have practically outgrown living within the premise of reservation.
Native indians. Pictures of Native Americans
BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 August Hartmann, Andrew Pomerville, Dennis C. Wendt, Sarah H. Klem, and Rachel L. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. ISSN X. Journal of Community Health. ISSN Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development.
Wingate, Victoria M. Transcultural Psychiatry. January Drug and Alcohol Dependence. Bibcode : PNAS.. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. Iberia and the Americas. In Raudzens, George ed. History of warfare. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers published Retrieved 27 October It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet.
Famine and Social Dissolution". Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press published In Tenochtitlan, during the famine of 1 Rabbit in , Moctezuma Ilhuicamina distributed food from the royal granaries to the poor. When the stores ran out, he gave permission for the populace to leave the city to find food elsewhere and people left. The populations of Texcoco, Chalco, Xochimilco, and Tepanecapan also fled their cities.
The Maya Lowlands appear to have suffered a famine at the same time, and the cities of Chichen Itza, Mayapan, and Uxmal appear to have been all abandoned simultaneously [ Retrieved 29 July Lentz, ed. Imperfect balance: landscape transformations in the Precolumbian Americas.
New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved 14 September Breaking the Maya Code. Reading the Maya Glyphs. Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs. Wayeb and Leiden University. Retrieved 31 January Collier et al, eds.
The Princeton Art Museum. Archived from the original on 20 April Retrieved 22 June Includes sound sample. Archived from the original on 17 February Retrieved 17 February Retrieved 9 April Statistics Canada. Retrieved 11 December US: Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2 June The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Shriver , Esteban J. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. US: National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 7 April Government of Colombia.
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Foreign Policy. Retrieved 15 August Genome Research. An Introduction to genetic analysis. New York: W. Zhakarov, "Central Asian origin of ancestors of the first Americans. DOI: October Bauu Institute. Genetic Literacy Project. Retrieved 7 September National Human Genome Research Institute. American Scientist. American Scientist Online May—June 3 : Bibcode : AmSci.. Retrieved 13 May Random House. Retrieved 21 November Genebase Tutorials". Genebase Systems.
Archived from the original Verbal tutorial possible on 22 June Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on 10 October Retrieved 18 November Retrieved 23 January Retrieved 22 November Bibcode : PNAS Molecular Biology and Evolution. The American Journal of Human Genetics. Annual Review of Anthropology. BMC Evolutionary Biology. Human Immunology. Retrieved 26 January Our finding of no excess allele sharing with non-Native American populations in the ancient samples is also striking as many of these individuals—including those at Lapa do Santo—have a "Paleoamerican" cranial morphology that has been suggested to be evidence of the spread of a substructured population of at least two different Native American source populations from Asia to the Americas von Cramon-Taubadel et al.
Our finding that early Holocene individuals with such a morphology are consistent with deriving all their ancestry from the same homogeneous ancestral population as other Native Americans extends the finding of Raghavan et al.
June It is now evident that the initial dispersal involved the movement from northeast Asia. The first peoples, once south of the continental ice sheets, spread widely, expanded rapidly and branched into multiple populations.
Their descendants—over the next fifteen millennia—experienced varying degrees of isolation, admixture, continuity and replacement, and their genomes help to illuminate the relationships among major subgroups of Native American populations. Notably, all ancient individuals in the Americas, save for later-arriving Arctic peoples, are more closely related to contemporary Indigenous American individuals than to any other population elsewhere, which challenges the claim—which is based on anatomical evidence—that there was an early, non-Native American population in the Americas.
Sarkar 18 June The team discovered that the Spirit Cave remains came from a Native American while dismissing a longstanding theory that a group called Paleoamericans existed in North America before Native Americans. Gaskins, S. Children's Engagement in the World: Sociocultural Perspectives : 25— Nimmo, J.
Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood. Morelli, G. International Journal of Behavioral Development. The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball in the opposing team's goal either a single post or net to score and to prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal.
The game involves as few as 20 or as many as players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from around feet 61 m apart to about 2 miles 3.
Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone-shaped disk that was about 1—2 inches in diameter. The disk was thrown down a foot 61 m corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.
Jim Thorpe , a Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all-around athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future President Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. In a speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed. My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw.
In the Olympics, Thorpe could run the yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the in Olympic trials for the pentathlon and the decathlon. Louis Tewanima , Hopi people , was an American two-time Olympic distance runner and silver medalist in the 10,meter run in His silver medal in remained the best U. Tewanima also competed at the Olympics, where he finished in ninth place in the marathon. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event.
An unknown before the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U. Olympic trials. Billy Kidd , part Abenaki from Vermont , became the first American male to medal in alpine skiing in the Olympics, taking silver at age 20 in the slalom in the Winter Olympics at Innsbruck , Austria. Six years later at the World Championships, Kidd won the gold medal in the combined event and took the bronze medal in the slalom.
Traditional Native American music is almost entirely monophonic , but there are notable exceptions. Native American music often includes drumming or the playing of rattles or other percussion instruments but little other instrumentation.
Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles as noted by Spanish conquistador de Soto. The tuning of modern flutes is typically pentatonic. Some, such as John Trudell , have used music to comment on life in Native America. Other musicians such as R. Carlos Nakai , Joanne Shenandoah and Robert "Tree" Cody integrate traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings, whereas the music by artist Charles Littleleaf is derived from ancestral heritage as well as nature.
A variety of small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to hard-driving rock-and-roll and rap. In the International world of ballet dancing Maria Tallchief was considered America's first major prima ballerina , [] and was the first person of Native American descent to hold the rank.
The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the pow-wow. At pow-wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico , members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center.
Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most Indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community.
The Iroquois , living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure.
The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries. Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were formalized pictorial arts. Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by ceremonial acts, usually incorporating sandpainting.
For the Navajo, the sand painting is not merely a representational object, but a dynamic spiritual entity with a life of its own, which helped the patient at the center of the ceremony re-establish a connection with the life force. These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the healing ceremony.
The Native American arts and crafts industry brings in more than a billion in gross sales annually. Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include pottery , paintings , jewellery , weavings , sculpture , basketry , and carvings. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is protected by the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of , which prohibits the representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist.
Attorney Gail Sheffield and others claim that this law has had "the unintended consequence of sanctioning discrimination against Native Americans whose tribal affiliation was not officially recognized". Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with "few in-depth studies on interracial relationships".
European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound already during the early years of colonization and the creation of the countries which currently exist in the Americas. Europeans living among Native Americans were often called "white indians".
They "lived in native communities for years, learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and often fought alongside their native companions". Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy. There was fear on both sides, as the different peoples realized how different their societies were. Orthodox Christians never viewed Native people as savages or sub-human.
Blackbird, wrote in his History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan , that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes. Many Native Americans suffered because the Europeans introduced alcohol.
Many Native people do not break down alcohol in the same way as people of Eurasian background. Many Native people were learning what their body could tolerate of this new substance and died as a result of imbibing too much. Blackbird wrote:. The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite virtuous in their primitive state, as there were no illegitimate children reported in our old traditions. But very lately this evil came to exist among the Ottawas-so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of 'Arbor Croche' is yet living in And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes.
For a Native American man to marry a white woman, he had to get consent of her parents, as long as "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home". In the late 19th century, three European-American middle-class women teachers at Hampton Institute married Native American men whom they had met as students. As European-American women started working independently at missions and Indian schools in the western states, there were more opportunities for their meeting and developing relationships with Native American men.
For instance, Charles Eastman , a man of European and Lakota origin whose father sent both his sons to Dartmouth College , got his medical degree at Boston University and returned to the West to practice. He married Elaine Goodale , whom he met in South Dakota. He was the grandson of Seth Eastman , a military officer from Maine, and a chief's daughter. Goodale was a young European-American teacher from Massachusetts and a reformer, who was appointed as the U.
They had six children together. The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale. Most Native American tribes did not barter captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members.
Native Americans began selling war captives to Europeans rather than integrating them into their own societies as they had done before.
As the demand for labor in the West Indies grew with the cultivation of sugar cane , Europeans enslaved Native Americans for the Thirteen Colonies , and some were exported to the "sugar islands". The British settlers, especially those in the southern colonies, purchased or captured Native Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo.
Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist because vital statistics and census reports were at best infrequent. In Colonial America, slavery soon became racialized , with those enslaved by the institution consisting of ethnic groups non-Christian Native Americans and Africans who were foreign to the Christian, European colonists. The House of Burgesses define the terms of slavery in Virginia in All servants imported and brought into the Country All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion If any slave resists his master The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the Yamasee War.
The Indian Wars of the early 18th century, combined with the increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by Colonists found that Native American slaves could easily escape, as they knew the country.
The wars cost the lives of numerous colonial slave traders and disrupted their early societies. The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength. Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast strengthened their loose coalitions of language groups and joined confederacies such as the Choctaw , the Creek , and the Catawba for protection.
Even after the Indian Slave Trade ended in , the enslavement of Native Americans continued mostly through kidnappings in the west and in the Southern states.
African and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native American and African contact occurred in April , when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to Hispaniola to serve as slaves. Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans. The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided.
Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies. According to the National Park Service , "Native Americans, during the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, were enslaved at the same time and shared a common experience of enslavement.
They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried. In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or runaway African men due to a decrease in the population of men in Native American villages. While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died.
In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee , Choctaw , and Creek. In the Census, nearly 3 million people indicated that their race was Native American including Alaska Native.
This phenomenon has been dubbed the " Cherokee Syndrome ". Some tribes particularly some in the Eastern United States are primarily made up of individuals with an unambiguous Native American identity , despite having a large number of mixed-race citizens with prominent non-Native ancestry. Historically, numerous Native Americans assimilated into colonial and later American society , e.
In many cases, this process occurred through forced assimilation of children sent off to special boarding schools far from their families.
Those who could pass for white had the advantage of white privilege. Native Americans are more likely than any other racial group to practice interracial marriage , resulting in an ever-declining proportion of Indigenous blood among those who claim a Native American identity. Disenrollment has become a contentious issue in Native American reservation politics. Intertribal mixing was common among many Native American tribes prior to European contact, as they would adopt captives taken in warfare.
Individuals often had ancestry from more than one tribe, particularly after tribes lost so many members from disease in the colonial era and after.
A number of tribes traditionally adopted captives into their group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle. Such captives were from rival tribes and later were taken from raids on European settlements. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves, and others owned slaves of their own.
Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between Native American women and European men, often seen as advantageous to both sides.
In recent years, genetic genealogists have been able to determine the proportion of Native American ancestry carried by the African-American population. The literary and history scholar Henry Louis Gates, Jr. A greater percentage could have a smaller proportion of Indian ancestry, but their conclusions show that popular estimates of Native American admixture may have been too high. DNA testing is not sufficient to qualify a person for specific tribal membership, as it cannot distinguish among Native American tribes; however, some tribes, such as the Meskwaki Nation, require a DNA test in order to enroll in the tribe.
For example, a genetic male could have a maternal grandfather from whom he did not inherit his Y chromosome and a paternal grandmother from whom he did not inherit his mtDNA who were descended from Native American founders, but mtDNA and Y-chromosome analyses would not detect them.
Native American identity has historically been based on culture, not just biology, as many American Indian peoples adopted captives from their enemies and assimilated them into their tribes. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans, they are also found in people in other parts of the world. Not all Native Americans have been tested; especially with the large number of deaths due to disease such as smallpox , it is unlikely that Native Americans only have the genetic markers they have identified [so far], even when their maternal or paternal bloodline does not include a [known] non-Native American.
To receive tribal services, a Native American must be a certified or enrolled member of a federally recognized tribal organization. Each tribal government makes its own rules for the eligibility of citizens or tribal members. Among tribes, qualification for enrollment may be based upon a required percentage of Native American "blood" or the " blood quantum " of an individual seeking recognition, or documented descent from an ancestor on the Dawes Rolls or other registers.
But, the federal government has its own standards related to who qualifies for services available to certified Native Americans. For instance, federal scholarships for Native Americans require the student both to be enrolled in a federally recognized tribe and to be of at least one-quarter Native American descent equivalent to one grandparent , attested to by a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood CDIB card issued by the federal government. Some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing of individuals' applying for membership, but this is usually related to an individual's proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member.
The Cherokee require documented direct genealogical descent from a Native American listed in the early Dawes Rolls. Tribal rules regarding the recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes are equally diverse and complex. Federally recognized tribes do not accept genetic-ancestry results as appropriate documentation for enrollment and do not advise applicants to submit such documentation.
Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of legal disputes, court cases, and the formation of activist groups. One example of this is the Cherokee Freedmen. Today, they include descendants of African Americans once enslaved by the Cherokees, who were granted, by federal treaty, citizenship in the historic Cherokee Nation as freedmen after the Civil War.
The modern Cherokee Nation , in the early s, passed a law to require that all members must prove descent from a Cherokee Native American not Cherokee Freedmen listed on the Dawes Rolls, resulting in the exclusion of some individuals and families who had been active in Cherokee culture for years. Since the United States Census , people may identify as being of more than one race.
Sociologists attribute this dramatic change to "ethnic shifting" or "ethnic shopping"; they believe that it reflects a willingness of people to question their birth identities and adopt new ethnicities which they find more compatible.
The reaction from lifelong Indians runs the gamut. It is easy to find Native Americans who denounce many of these new Indians as members of the wannabe tribe. But it is also easy to find Indians like Clem Iron Wing, an elder among the Lakota , who sees this flood of new ethnic claims as magnificent, a surge of Indians 'trying to come home.
The journalist Mary Annette Pember notes that identifying with Native American culture may be a result of a person's increased interest in genealogy , the romanticization of the lifestyle, and a family tradition of Native American ancestors in the distant past.
There are different issues if a person wants to pursue enrollment as a member of a tribe. Pember concludes:. The subjects of genuine American Indian blood, cultural connection and recognition by the community are extremely contentious issues, hotly debated throughout Indian country and beyond. The whole situation, some say, is ripe for misinterpretation, confusion and, ultimately, exploitation.
Neither recombines , and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material. There are five primary Native American mtDNA haplogroups in which there are clusters of closely linked markers inherited together.
All five haplogroups have been identified by researchers as "prehistoric Native North American samples", and it is commonly asserted that the majority of living Native Americans possess one of the common five mtDNA haplogroup markers. The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line , with an initial 15, to 20,year layover on Beringia for the small founding population.
Scientists suggest that the main ancestor of the Ainu and of some Native American groups can be traced back to Paleolithic groups in Southern Siberia.
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Main article: Cultural assimilation of Native Americans. Further information: Indian colony and Indian reservations. Further information: Native American reservation politics. Main article: Indian boarding schools. Main articles: Native American self-determination and Native American civil rights. Main article: Tribal colleges and universities. Further information: Modern social statistics of Native Americans.
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Main article: Native American identity. Further information: Cherokee freedmen controversy , Cherokee descent , and Tribal disenrollment. Main article: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Retrieved January 16, United States Census Bureau. December Hill and Wang. ISBN X. Journal of American History. JSTOR Rotting Face: Smallpox and the American Indian 1st ed.
University of Nebraska Press. ISBN Journal of Genocide Research. ISSN S2CID December 5, American Settler Colonialism: A History. Cambridge University Press. August 13, Retrieved November 24, Government Publishing Office. November 14, Archived PDF from the original on May 7, Retrieved May 7, American Heritage , Spring March The Atlantic. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. Retrieved June 28, April 8, University of Oklahoma Press.
The University of Georgia Press. Andrew Jackson. History Book Club. You Must Submit". Eric Miller. Retrieved May 2, Archiving America. Retrieved February 17, Christian Mirror and N. July 15, II, Treaties".
Government Printing Office. Archived from the original on May 17, Retrieved April 16, Many lived in permanent settlements, known as pueblos, built of stone and adobe. These pueblos featured great multistory dwellings that resembled apartment houses. At their centers, many of these villages also had large ceremonial pit houses, or kivas. Other Southwestern peoples, such as the Navajo and the Apache, were more nomadic.
They survived by hunting, gathering and raiding their more established neighbors for their crops. Because these groups were always on the move, their homes were much less permanent than the pueblos.
For instance, the Navajo fashioned their iconic eastward-facing round houses, known as hogans, out of materials like mud and bark. Spanish colonists and missionaries had enslaved many of the Pueblo Indians, for example, working them to death on vast Spanish ranches known as encomiendas.
The Great Basin culture area, an expansive bowl formed by the Rocky Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevadas to the west, the Columbia Plateau to the north, and the Colorado Plateau to the south, was a barren wasteland of deserts, salt flats and brackish lakes. Its people, most of whom spoke Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan dialects the Bannock, Paiute and Ute, for example , foraged for roots, seeds and nuts and hunted snakes, lizards and small mammals.
Because they were always on the move, they lived in compact, easy-to-build wikiups made of willow poles or saplings, leaves and brush. Their settlements and social groups were impermanent, and communal leadership what little there was was informal.
After European contact, some Great Basin groups got horses and formed equestrian hunting and raiding bands that were similar to the ones we associate with the Great Plains natives. Before European contact, the temperate California area had more people than any other North American landscape at the time, approximately , people in the midth century.
It's estimated that different tribes and groups spoke more than dialects. Despite this great diversity, many native Californians lived very similar lives. They did not practice much agriculture. Instead, they organized themselves into small, family-based bands of hunter-gatherers known as tribelets. Inter-tribelet relationships, based on well-established systems of trade and common rights, were generally peaceful.
Spanish explorers infiltrated the California region in the middle of the 16th century. The Northwest Coast culture area, along the Pacific coast from British Columbia to the top of Northern California, has a mild climate and an abundance of natural resources. As a result, unlike many other hunter-gatherers who struggled to eke out a living and were forced to follow animal herds from place to place, the Indians of the Pacific Northwest were secure enough to build permanent villages that housed hundreds of people apiece.
Those villages operated according to a rigidly stratified social structure, more sophisticated than any outside of Mexico and Central America. Lone Bear Tar-lo , a Kiowa, dressed as an Osage boy with paint stripes on forehead; full-length, seated.
Photographed by William S. Soule, Navajo papoose on a cradleboard with a lamb approaching, Window Rock, Arizona. Armstrong Roberts, ca. Treaty signing by William T. Sherman and the Sioux at Fort Laramie, Wyoming. Photographed by Alexander Gardner, Photographed by John C. Grabill, Photographed by Helen Post, Photographed by Walter D. Navajo silversmith with examples of his work and tools.
Arapaho Ghost Dance. Artwork by Mary Irvin Wright, ca. Eskimo dance orchestra, including drumheads made from whale stomachs, Point Barrow, Alaska. Photographed by Stanley Morgan, Hopi women's dance, Oraibi, Ariz.
Buffalo dance of the Mandans. Army Signal Corps photograph, Sioux sun dance. Artwork by Jules Tavernier and Paul Frenzeny, Grabill, August 9, Flathead delegation of six and an interpreter. Bell, Mandan and Arikara delegation. Six Indians with three escorts, Oto delegation of five wearing claw necklaces and fur turbans.
Hillers, January Red Cloud delegation. Oglala Sioux, before Large delegation with several agents or other officials on the White House grounds. Mathew Brady Collection photograph, before Original Caption: Apache bride. Apache bride. Eskimo mother and child in furs, Nome, Alaska; bust-length, with child on back. Kaiser, ca. Havasupai girl wearing beads and cape; half-length, seated.
Hopi woman dressing hair of unmarried girl. Miles Brothers photograph, Two Wichita girls in summer dress. Indians in North Carolina fishing with traps, spears, and nets. Artwork by John White, Johnnie Saux, a Quinaielt, holding a dog salmon, Taholah, Washington. A Seminole spearing a garfish from a dugout, Florida, ca.
Photographed by Andrew T. Kelley, Arapaho camp with buffalo meat drying near Fort Dodge, Kansas. Salmon drying. Aleut village, Old Harbor, Alaska.
Photographed by N. Miller, Paiute woman grinding seeds in doorway of thatched hut, small boy in foreground. Photographed by Gardin, Two Taos women baking bread in outside oven, New Mexico.
T Cory, Paiute children playing game called wolf and deer, northern Arizona. Hillers, October Four Nuaguntit Paiutes gambling, southwestern Nevada.
Original Caption: Eskimo group. Eskimo group of 11 men, women, and children dressed in fur, Port Clarence, Alaska. Photographed by William Dinwiddie, Knik Chief Nikaly and family near Anchorage, Alaska. Man and woman of Laguna Pueblo, New Mexico. Winema or Tobey Riddle, a Modoc, standing between an agent and her husband Frank on her left , with four Modoc women in front. Photographed by Eadweard Muybridge, Shoshoni at Fort Washakie, Wyoming.
Last photograph of Chief Washakie, who is on the extreme left, standing and pointing, Two Tlingit women with several children near the Kotsina River, Alaska. Original Caption: Bannack indians. Apache rancheria with two men holding rifles. Photographed by Camillus S. Family of Bannocks in front of a grass tent, Idaho. Photographed by William H. Jackson,
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